Sports And Aggressiveness Essay Example For Students

Sports And Aggressiveness Essay Sport and aggressive behavior, Do sports create aggressive behavior, or simplyattract people who are already aggressive? Aggression and sport have gonetogether as long as sports have been around, be it the players themselves, tothe parents, coaches, or spectators, they just seem to be an inseparable part ofeach other. The term violence is defined as physical assault based on totaldisregard for the well being of self and others, or the intent to injure anotherperson ( 2. Coakley). Intimidation usually does not cause physical harm, butoften is designed to produce psychological consequences, enabling one person tophysically over power or dominate another. These statements as defined by theauthor, Jay J. Coakley, is what people today have made a must part on sport. We will write a custom essay on Sports And Aggressiveness specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Pleasure and participation sports absolutely cannot be grouped with power andperformance sports when in relation to aggression.Pleasure sports are simplyplayed for pleasure. Score is usually not kept. The athletes participating areusually on occasion doing it for fun and exercise. A majority of athletes whohave been playing sports since they were little, have probably been pounded intotheir heads that to be successful in sport, you need to be aggressive, and atsome times, unnecessary. Also that to get what you want, you have to go at itwith all force. Not that this is wrong but, this attitude in todays societyhas been a major problem factor to the athletes when they get older, to get intotrouble with the law. Those long-term effects of so called discipline, patternsdevelops these destructive behaviors. (9. Montague) Although some people arestill in belief that aggressive behaviors in all forms, are grounded intoinstincts, but they also relate these actions to sports. Their parents pl ayed,who were known for their aggressive behavior, so the child feels that they haveto live up to that expectation.( 6. Storr) Athletes do have to be aggressive toa point, so that the team can form a strategy to win. There is also a limit toaggression when it turns into violence. People might say that its notaggression or violence, its just adrenaline pumping. Adrenaline isnt evensimilar to violence. Aggression, maybe, but nothing that would be harmful toanyone else. This might be a factor to why contact sports are so popular. Forexample, football, hockey, rugby, wrestling, and boxing. Contrary to predictionsof instinct theory, several studies show that contact sports exist and thrive inthe same societies that have high rates of aggression and violence. Unfortunately, another belief is that contact sports teach discipline,self-respect, and self-defense. (8. May ) Contact sports arent a positive wayto teach these things. Being physically tough helps, but it also needs to beleft on the field when the game is over. This can also lead to the abuse offamily, girlfriends, boyfriends, friends, and any other person who gets in theirway, because athletes use these sports as a way to get their aggressionand angers out. ( 10. Hauser, Powers, Noam ) Others might argue that itsskill, and not in the least way violent. Although we really cant give astraight and to the point answer to the question Is aggression anInstinct? We can say that in man, as in other animals, there exists aphysiological mechanism, when stimulated, it rises both subjective feelings ofanger and to physical changes, which relate to fighting. This is easily set off,and like other emotional responses, it is very stereotyped, and instinctive. Just like one person is like a very angry person; they resemble one another atthe psychological level. The way in which humans adapt to and control theirfeelings of rage. ( 5. Toch) The mechanisms in which these body changes, thefunctions that come about is still completely misunderstood. ( 5. Toch)Experiments from animals show that it appears that there is a small area fromthe base of the brain in which the feeling of anger starts. This, from which issent to the nervous impulses that cause the blood pressure to rise. This area iscalled the hypothalamus. Its function is to coordinate responses like anger. ( 3Diamond) The relationship between anger, rage, and violence, and psychopathologythat is abnormal, or unnatural in human behavior and experience. Peopledemonstrate their anger reactions in different ways. Similar to most humanbehavior, violence has a meaning that it only seems senseless ormeaningless to the extent that we are unable to understand it. Mostviolence starts the fiery human emotions of anger and rage. Not all violentbehavior has its origins in anger and rage; some of it is learned, as mentionedbefore. Some violence is driven primarily by as Friedrich Nietzsche referred asthe will to power. In other words, rage. ( 3. Diamond) Rage is aninstinctual and defensive reaction to severe stress, or physical threat. This isan automatic reflex that people share with animals. This response to seriousthreat is referred to by Walter Cannon as the fight or flight response. Its the first defense for the survival of the species. Any other threat tothe continued physical existence, a person would have the instinct to try toleave, or if they cant, then physically defend them by attacking the sourceof the threat. ( 7 . Hawkins, Fredman ) Relating to the fact that men are moreaggressive than women are, studies shown in several cases those testosteronelevels in young men especially are. The high levels of endogenous testosteroneseem to encourage behavior apparently intended to dominate, to enhance onesstatus over other people. ( 9. Montague) Sometimes aggressive behavior isaggressive, its apparent intent being to inflict harm on another person, butoften dominance is expressed nonaggressively. Measurement of testosterone at asingle point in time presumably indicator of a mans basal testosterone level,predicts many of these dominant behaviors. Numerous animal experiments, this oneparticular to rodents, show that raising testosterone increases aggressiveness. .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28 , .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28 .postImageUrl , .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28 , .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28:hover , .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28:visited , .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28:active { border:0!important; } .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28:active , .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28 .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uc2897206090d1bb9463e198bf4ea0e28:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Greek Gods EssayThis is in relation to the dominance and antisocial behavior related to theindividuals. An individual can be said to act dominantly if its apparentintent is to achieve or maintain high status, to obtain power influence, orvalued prerogatives. Rodents do typically dominate aggressively, but it isnttrue of humans. Much of interpersonal behavior is overtly or subtly concernedwith managing dominance and subordination without causing physical harm. It isharder to identify instances of aggression of a dominating motives, thingsrelated to religious sacrifices. It is understood that motivations are differentfrom different situations for dominance and aggression. ( 1. Felson, Tedeschi)Clinical science assumes that all men are capable of bloody destructiveness. Itmaintains that image with most people who do away with their hatreds and, andalthough There are some instances where this effort fails. Some people are soshy about their aggressiveness that when they are provoked in the least littleway, they become so violent that they are unbearable. Even a slight review ofviolent conduct suggests that violence isnt blind, and random. Members offighting gangs are frequently nonviolent when separated from their members. Manyextremely dangerous people seem to specialize in certain areas of victims. Thisis in relation to taking the aggressiveness off the field. There is sometimes arelationship between being violent and being socially improper. Violence usuallytakes place in certain circles, certain settings, and on certain occasions. Ifviolence is really blind and random, its hard to understand why we shouldfind so much in specific situations. Does a man assault his wife rather than theathlete who messed up simply because shes available? Violence cant beassociated with angry explosions. There is shape and form to violence. Patternsof destructiveness show consistently, and they relay from person to person. Asfor each of us, violence seems to be tied to a restricted range of lifesituations. It seems to reflect purpose, and implies the presence of hiddenmeanings. So, how do we satisfy it? How is it provoked? How do violent peoplefunction? (4. Stepansky) The level of testosterone circulating in thebloodstream may affect dominating or aggressive behavior by activating receptorsin organs or the nervous system. Focusing on young males who have passed throughpuberty. There are associated reports that show a relatively high level oftestosterone with dominant, aggressive, or antisocial actors including severalstudies of men in jail. The scientists found that no significant testosteronedifference between those who fought in prison, and those who did not, betweenthe ages of 18 to 35. However, prisoners with a prior record of violence andaggression related crimes, they had a significantly higher testosterone levelthan those without a history. In the age group of 18to 45, sorted into the samegroups, those with chronic aggressive behavior, those socially dominant withoutphysical aggressiveness, and those who were neither aggressive or dominant,their testosterone levels were not significantly different between theaggressive and dominant groups, but they also had significantly highertestosterone than the group that was either aggressive or dominant. (7. Hawkins,Fredman) A similar study was tested on college hockey players. ( 1. Felson ,Tedeschi) They studied 14 male college players ages 18 to 23, and found asignificant correlation between testosterone and coach ratings of playersaggressiveness in respond to threat. Another study was done on four malephysicians. Ranging from ages to 23 to 38, they were confined on a boat for a two week holidaycruise. The testosterone level to be correlated with thephysicians assertiveness and dominant behavior, as ranked by three women onthe boat. Overall, there is considerable evidence from a variety of settingsthat in men, circulating testosterone is correlated with dominant or aggressivebehavior, and antisocial norm breaking. Correlation doesnt imply any reason,and the question is still being pondered, Is high testosterone a cause ofdominant and antisocial behavior? ( 9. Montague) There has also been argumentwhether or not that women can be as aggressive and dominant as men. Despiteconsiderable speculation that testosterone is associated with aggression orstatus in women, the literature is few and far between. Scientists report thattestosterone levels in 55 women increased the status of their occupations. Another study was done with women who were patients in a neurological clinic,found significantly higher testosterone levels among relatively aggressivepatients compared to less aggressive ones, but they also differed in diagnois,and making the comparison suspect. ( 5. Toch) The issue of sex differences hasbeen addressed by asking how men and women respond to an identical competitivesituation. Testosterone was given by saliva to young men and women before,during, and after competing with a same sex partner in a video game. Thehormonal response to the competition was different in each sex. Males showed theusual pre contest rise in testosterone, but females did not. Males did notshow the usual result that testosterone levels of winners is higher than that oflosers, apparently because the video game produced no mood difference betweenmale winners and losers. A mood difference was produced between female winnersand losers, but the female showed no specific response to the competition. The seresults show that the outcome of the competition on testosterone specific tomen. (7. Hawkins, Fredman) From laboratory results and athletic studies, thetestosterone level rises in men awaiting a contest, regardless of the eventualoutcome contest. Generalizing to the street, hormone levels should be elevatedin young men who are constantly against assaults on their reputations. Ofcourse, testosterone level is also affected by the outcome of the contest, sopersistent losers might be hormonally depressed, but most men, those with mixedoutcome or better, should have elevated testosterone level. ( 3. Diamond)Leaving behind the historic roots of the South, there may be a generalhypersensitivity to insult in any subculture that is, or once was organizedaround young men who are constantly constrained by traditional community agentsof social control, as after occurs in frontier countries, gangs, amongbohemians, and after social breakdown or natural diseases. When young men placespecial emph asis on protecting their images and reputations, and they are notrestrained from doing so, dominance contests become necessary, the hallmark ofmale to male interaction. ( 5. Toch) To interpret racial differences intestosterone, a comparison of black and white boys ages 6 to 18 years, mostlypreteens, showed no significant race different in testosterone. By adulthood,black males do have significantly higher testosterone levels than white males,possibly reflecting the higher defensive demands on black men during adulthood. .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1 , .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1 .postImageUrl , .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1 , .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1:hover , .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1:visited , .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1:active { border:0!important; } .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1:active , .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1 .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uc3457fd124c3820f6c1df9b8bd0becd1:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Macbeth 2 Persuasive Essay( 10. Hauser, Powers, Noam) The reciprocal linkage between hormones and behaviorsuggests that if testosterone levels among young men in the inner city arehighlighted by their constant defensive posture against challenge and these highhormone levels in turn encourage further dominance contests. Feedback betweenchallenge and testosterone may create a various circle, sometimes with lethaleffects.(7. Hawkins, Fredman) During puberty, the effects of testosterone onbehavior appear to work primarily through long term reorganizations of the bodyand neurohormanal system, and only secondary through short term activation. Bythe end of puberty, usually around 16 years, the body is nearly at its adultform so behavior is affected primarily by the level of testosterone circulatingin the blood stream, which can activate steroid receptors. (10. Hauser, Powers,Noam) There is a string correlation and experimental evidence that testosteronelevels respond in predictable ways both before and after competitions forstatus. First, testosterone rises shortly before a competitive event, as ifanticipating the challenge. Second, after the conclusion of competition,testosterone levels in winners rises relative to that of losers. Testosteronealso rises after status evaluations, and it falls after status demotions, Theseeffects require the presence of appropriate mood changes. Limited evidencesuggests that this pattern of testosterone responses is specific to men. ( 4. Stepansky) As these studies have suggested, aggression in sport is there, butthe men mainly showcase it. Aggressive people are attracted to contact violentsport competitions, to where they can fit in while being violent. On the otherhand, sports can create aggressive behaviors that could lead to worse things. Women can and will showcase this, but as said before, men show a stronger caseof it. Things of this nature have been going on for centuries, every since thebeginning of sport, unfortunately, if these behaviors arent controlled, theyoung children might be the ones to suffer by an outcome that nobody wants tosee, doing away with sports in general. 1977 5. Violent Men; an inquiry into thepychology of violence, Hans Toch 1969 6. Human Aggression, Anthony Storr 1968Bibliography1. Aggression and Violence, social interactionists perspectives. , Richard B. Felson and James T. Tedeschi 1993 2. Sport in Society, Issues and Controversies6th edition, Jay J. Coakley 1998 3. Anger, Madness, and the Daimaonic; thepyschologists genesis of Violence, evil and creativitiy. Stephen A. Diamond 19964. A History of Aggression Freud, Paul E. Stepansky 1977 5. Violent Men; aninquiry into the pychology of violence, Hans Toch 1969 6. Human Aggression,Anthony Storr 1968 7. The Creation of Deviance, Interpersonal and organizeddeterminants, Richard Hawkins, Gary Fredman, 1975 8. Power and Innocence, RolloMay 1972 9. Man and Aggression, Ashley Montague 1968 10. Adolescents and theirFamilies , Paths of Ego Development, Stuart T. Hauser, Sally I. Powers, Gil G. Noam 1991Sports and Games

Free Essays on Disney Co

Euro Disney’ marketer’s before entering a market as in this case has been the European market should have scanned the environment. By scanning the environment they should analyze the mega-environment as well as the task environment for possible opportunities and threats . Yet, a close attention could have been paid to their strength and weaknesses inside the company. Indeed, the consideration about any trends should have been incorporated in their environment analysis. In this case there has been a recognition of a trend, which is the trend of people going to theme parks during the weekends for entertainment of them as well as their children. Also here is an existing need for entertainment of this kind. Therefore, an opportunity exists in the European market that Euro Disney could have taken advantage of. However, their failure to pick up signals from the macro environment and microenvironment as well as to position their product accordingly, had negative effects on their operations. A further analysis of their macro and micro environment highlights their malfunction. MACRO ENVIRONMENT (P.E.S.T) The components of the macro environment are the political-legal environment, the economic environment, the socio-cultural environment, and the technological environment in which Euro Disney operates. Political-legal environment: Euro Disney’s decision to open its Theme Park near Paris has caused a negative publicity in the sight of many French politicians. In fact, they have objected the existence of Theme Parks in the center of their French culture since the park has been viewed as a visible symbol of the U.S. culture. Although Euro Disney marketers probably choose this location, in particularly France, due to the fact that is the center of Europe and could most probably be the most convenient place for people to arrive and settle in their hotel to be entertained. For instance, people from all over Europe could travel quickly t... Free Essays on Disney Co Free Essays on Disney Co Euro Disney’ marketer’s before entering a market as in this case has been the European market should have scanned the environment. By scanning the environment they should analyze the mega-environment as well as the task environment for possible opportunities and threats . Yet, a close attention could have been paid to their strength and weaknesses inside the company. Indeed, the consideration about any trends should have been incorporated in their environment analysis. In this case there has been a recognition of a trend, which is the trend of people going to theme parks during the weekends for entertainment of them as well as their children. Also here is an existing need for entertainment of this kind. Therefore, an opportunity exists in the European market that Euro Disney could have taken advantage of. However, their failure to pick up signals from the macro environment and microenvironment as well as to position their product accordingly, had negative effects on their operations. A further analysis of their macro and micro environment highlights their malfunction. MACRO ENVIRONMENT (P.E.S.T) The components of the macro environment are the political-legal environment, the economic environment, the socio-cultural environment, and the technological environment in which Euro Disney operates. Political-legal environment: Euro Disney’s decision to open its Theme Park near Paris has caused a negative publicity in the sight of many French politicians. In fact, they have objected the existence of Theme Parks in the center of their French culture since the park has been viewed as a visible symbol of the U.S. culture. Although Euro Disney marketers probably choose this location, in particularly France, due to the fact that is the center of Europe and could most probably be the most convenient place for people to arrive and settle in their hotel to be entertained. For instance, people from all over Europe could travel quickly t...

SAT Literature Subject Test Information

SAT Literature Subject Test Information    When some people hear the word, Literature, they cringe out of habit. Literature makes things like movies, magazines, books and plays – stuff you actually want to enjoy – seem stuffy or out of date. But, if youll remember that the term is just a fancy way of saying, entertainment it wont be so daunting when its time to be tested on something like the SAT Literature Subject Test. Note: The SAT Literature Subject Test is not part of the SAT Reasoning Test, the popular college admissions exam. Its one of the many SAT Subject Tests, which are also offered by the College Board. SAT Literature Subject Test Basics So, what should you expect when you register for this SAT Subject Test? Here are the basics: 60 minutes60 multiple-choice questions based on 6 to 8 different literary passages200-800 points possible SAT Literature Subject Test Passages The SAT Literature Subject Test is very narrow in its scope. Remember, this is a Literature test, not a reading test, which is quite different. You will not be reading nonfiction like excerpts from memoirs, passages from biographies or samples from textbook. Nope! These six to eight passages of literature excerpts will look like this: The Genres: Approximately 3-4 of the passages will be prose (excerpts from novels, short stories, and essays).Approximately 3-4 of the passages will be poetry (either complete or shortened if the poem is long).Approximately 0-1 of the passages could be drama or other forms of literature (legends, fables, myths, etc.). The Sources: Approximately 3-4 of the passages will come from American Literature.Approximately 3-4 of the passages will come from British Literature.Approximately 0-1 of the passages could come from literature from other countries. (Indian, Caribbean, and Canadian excerpts have been used in the past.) The Age of the Passages: 30% of the passages will come from the Renaissance or 17th century.30% of the passages will come from the 18th or 19th century.40% of the passages will come from the 20th century. SAT Literature Subject Test Skills Since this is a Literature test, and not merely your average reading exam, youll be required to do a lot of analytical thinking about the passages youre reading. Youll also be expected to understand the basics about literature, itself. Heres what you should brush up on: Common Literary and Poetic TermsNarrators and Authors ToneMeaning and Vocabulary in Context Word Choice, Imagery, MetaphorThemeCharacterizationBasic Plot Structures Why Take the SAT Literature Subject Test? In some cases, it wont be a matter of choice; youll have to take the SAT Literature Subject Test based on the requirements of the program in which youre choosing to apply. You must check with your programs requirements to see if youre one of the lucky applicants that must sit for the test. If a particular program doesnt require the test, then some people choose to take the exam to show off their skills if theyre masters in Literature. It can really give your application score a boost if your SAT Lit score is through the roof. How to Prepare for the SAT Literature Subject Test Mostly, if youve done really well in your 3-4 years of Literature-based classes in high school, love to read outside of class, and can usually understand and analyze whats going on in various literary passages, you should do just fine on this exam. For those of you who have to take the test and Literature isnt your strongest suit, then Id definitely recommend hitting up your English teacher for some extra assignments to help you get better at analyzing the material. Good Luck!

Formation of International contract in the ( CISG ) under actical Essay

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Bilingualism and the effects of third language acquisition

Bilingualism and the effects of third language acquisition Since the early 1920s, much research has been done on bilingualism, with the earliest investigations finding mainly negative cognitive effects attributed to bilingualism (Pintner Keller, 1922; Saer, 1923). However, ever since Peal Lambert (1962) counter-claimed that bilinguals actually do perform better in certain cognitive tasks (e.g. symbolic manipulation types of non-verbal tasks), more recent studies have solidified the current view that bilingualism enhances ones cognitive flexibility and metalinguistic awareness. Yet, most research on language acquisition only focuses on one target language and neglects other languages already acquired or are being acquired by the learner. Research on third language acquisition (TLA) or the acquisition of additional languages (AAL), which attempts to fill this gap by bringing together the two traditionally detached fields of bilingualism and language acquisition, has only begun to accelerate during the late 1990s (Cenoz, 2008; Falk Bardel 20 10). The effect of bilingualism on TLA is one of the main areas of interest in research concerning third language (L3) studies. In order to sufficiently answer this question, we would have to define what we mean by bilingualism and third language acquisition. Different linguists define bilingualism differently over a broad spectrum, from the maximalist view of equal native-like competency in two languages to the minimalist interpretation of a minimal competency in two languages. For the purpose of this paper, we will define bilingualism as the ability to communicate effectively in two languages. Similarly, henceforth, third language acquisition will be defined as the process of learning and acquiring of a non-native language in a secondary context (i.e. language is acquired in a structured setting) by a learner who have already acquired two other languages previously. General consensus today prescribes to the notion that bilingualism brings about various cognitive benefits. It can be postulated that third language learners have a distinct advantage over second language learners due to their enhanced cognitive capabilities brought about by their bilingualism. Hakuta Bialystok (1994) wrote that the knowledge of two languages is greater than the sum of its parts. Most studies tend to indicate advantages in bilinguals over monolinguals in language acquisition, especially when the learners bilingualism is additive rather than subtractive (Cenoz, 2003). While there are numerous other factors affecting TLA including language similarity, L1/L2 influences, L1/L2 proficiency, recency of use, language status, role of Universal Grammar, cross-linguistic influences, early multilingualism and age of TLA (De Angelis 2007; Cenoz, 2008), we will be focusing solely on the effects of bilingualism on TLA. In particular, we will be discussing the effects of meta-ling uistic and meta-procedural gains on TLA due to bilingualism. Bilinguals have shown to display cognitive flexibility and enhanced metalinguistic awareness over monolinguals, and this in turn enhances bilinguals TLA (McLaughlin Nayak, 1989; Cenoz, 2003). Studies of bilingual children have shown bilinguals to have higher scores in tests targeting creative or divergent thinking. Research has also shown bilinguals to possess better abilities to control and utilise linguistic knowledge and to have an overall predisposition in word awareness tasks (Cummins, 1991; Bialystok, 2001). Furthermore, in Cummins (1991), the interdependence hypothesis was proposed which suggested that skill transfers take place from a bilinguals L1 into L2. One can only assume that these enhanced cognitive and metalinguistic abilities would have a positive effect in a bilinguals acquisition of a L3. It can also be logically deduced that the skill transfers from L1 into L2 based on the interdependence hypothesis can also occur from a L3 learners L1 and L2 into the L3. In an e ffort to further this hypothesis, De Angelis (2007) wrote that TLA differ significantly from second language acquisition (SLA) due to the fact that L3 learners can transfer linguistic elements from their prior knowledge in both L1 and L2, and this gives L3 learners an advantage over L2 learners. Studies have also shown that L3 learners often leverage upon their access to two different linguistic systems during the process of TLA (Herdina Jessner, 2002). All these suggested that the enhanced cognitive and metalinguistic abilities a bilingual possesses positively affects the acquisition of a L3. Enhanced cognitive abilities are not the only skills transferable during TLA. Syntactic transfers have also been shown to occur in L3 leaners. Different languages have different syntactic rules, and most bilinguals would have had access to the different syntactic rules governing the different languages they know (assuming that the two languages are syntactically dissimilar). This knowledge of two different sets of syntactic rules would assist a bilingual in the learning of a L3. Flynn, Foley Vinnitskaya (2004) proposed that language learning is cumulative in the Cumulative-Enhancement Model, suggesting that each language learned previously influences and enhances subsequent language learning, adding to a cumulative advantage for third and additional language learners. However, a more recent study by Bardel Falk (2007) on Swedish and Dutch L3 learners found only positive transfers of syntactic properties from L2 but not L1 in the learning of a L3. It was additionally proposed that i n L3 acquisition, the L2 acts like a filter, making the L1 inaccessible. If the above researches holds true, bilingualism could have either a positive or negative effect on third language acquisition depending on the learners L2. If the L2 is syntactically similar to the L3, the L3 learner would experience positive transfers of the syntactic properties of L2 into L3, aiding the learners acquisition of L3. Conversely, if the L1 but not the L2 is syntactically similar to the L3, the L3 learner would not be able to access the benefits of his knowledge in his L1 that he would otherwise have been able to reap had there not existed an L2 to act as a filter. Nevertheless, both studies while disagreeing on the existence of syntactic transfer from a L3 learners L1, agreed that they both found no negative (only positive or neutral) transfers regardless of the similarity or dissimilarity of the L3 learners L2. Therefore, irrespective of the fact that syntactic transfer from L1 occurs or not, bilinguals would have an advantage (or at least no disadvantage) in languag e learning as compared to monolinguals. Similarly, studies have also proved that transfers in the bilinguals knowledge of different orthographic systems give the bilingual an advantage in TLA. While numerous languages in the world are similar orthographically, many written languages have vastly different orthographic systems. In many cases, a learner of an additional language would need to learn a new orthographic system. Abu-Rabia Sanitsky (2010) compared students with knowledge in two orthographies (Hebrew and Russian) against students with knowledge in only one (Hebrew) in the acquisition of English as an additional language. While the results found that transfers of orthographic skills occurred in both groups of students, the learners who were familiar with two orthographic types outperformed those with knowledge in only one type of orthography. It was also noted that the rich orthographic experience in different orthographies is an advantage for trilingual speakers. However, numerous studies have found limited orthog raphic transfers when two vastly different orthographic systems were involved (e.g. Wang, Perfetti Liu, 2005 on Chinese-English; Wang, Park Lee, 2006 on Korean-English). In particular, Bialystok, Luk Kwan (2005) compared Spanish-English, Hebrew-English and Chinese-English bilinguals with monolinguals, and found that all three groups of bilinguals obtained higher levels of literacy than the monolinguals. They also found that Spanish-English and Hebrew-English bilinguals had a greater advantage than Chinese-English bilinguals (Spanish and Hebrew are both written alphabetically albeit in different scripts; Chinese is written logographically). While evidence shows that bilinguals would have an advantage in TLA due to orthographic transfers, the magnitude of such gains would be dependent on the similarities (if any) of the orthographies involved. It can be assumed that as the benefits of orthographic transfers exist due to the bilinguals enhanced awareness of different orthographic and script systems, bilinguals who use the same orthography and script in both L1 and L2 would find little or no advantage over monolinguals in the acquisition of an additional language which uses a different orthographic system. The same bilingual would however experience benefits in learning a L3 which uses the same or similar orthography and script as both the L1 and L2. However, what remains to be researched is the amount of orthographic transfer when the L3 is orthographically similar to either but not both the L1 and L2. It would also be interesting to find out if the filtering effect as proposed earlier by Bardel Falk (2007) on blocking o f syntactic transfers from the L1 by the L2 likewise holds true for orthographic transfers. TLA is similar to SLA in many ways, but yet it has been reported that language learners benefit from not only meta-linguistic gains but also from meta-procedural gains from prior language learning experiences. A study by McLaughin Nayak (1989) speculated that expert learners use different information-processing strategies and techniques than do more novice learners, and noted that multilinguals use a wider range of strategies and are more flexible in language learning than monolinguals. Similarly, Kemp (2007) showed that multilinguals experience in language learning helps them formulate better learning strategies which speeds acquisition through freeing up working memory. Kemp further noted that the number and frequency of strategies used in language learning is positively related to the number of languages the language learner already knows. From this, we can conclude that the more languages a person knows, the easier it will be for him to acquire an additional language. We can thu s deduce that bilingualism gives the bilingual an advantage in L3 acquisition brought about by the prior language learning experience. However, most studies on L3 learners meta-procedural gains have compared L3 learners with L2 learners, neglecting the differences between L3 learners who are simultaneous or sequential bilinguals. For L3 learners to reap the benefits from meta-procedural gains, logically, the learner must have had prior textbook learning of a language. Simultaneous bilinguals who grew up learning two languages simultaneously in a naturalist setting would not have had prior language learning experiences to tap upon. Further studies on TLA comparing simultaneous and sequential bilinguals would fill this gap and offer additional evidence of such meta-procedural gains if results prove that sequential bilinguals perform better in TLA over simultaneous bilinguals. During the course of this paper, we have discussed how, more often than not, bilingualism has shown to exhibit positive effects on the acquisition of a L3 be it meta-linguistically or meta-procedurally. It has to be noted that while most studies conducted on the effects of bilingualism on TLA tend to claim advantages for bilinguals, not all reports on the effects of bilingualism on third language acquisition is positive. Some studies have instead shown no significant advantages in TLA by bilinguals (Soler, 2008). Cenoz (2003) further pointed out that even if bilingualism has an effect on third language acquisition, it does not have to affect all aspects of third language proficiency in the same way, and different conclusions can be drawn depending on the dimension of language proficiency taken into consideration. Moreover, in Del Puerto (2007), it was pointed out that balanced bilinguals tend to perform better than less balanced bilinguals in third language learning. In other words, the degree of proficiency in L1 and L2 must also be taken into account when evaluating the effects of bilingualism on third language acquisition. Logical reasoning would direct that a bilingual who is less proficient in or is suffering from language attrition in either of his languages would perform less impressively than a balanced bilingual. As Del Puerto (2007) aptly sums it, third language acquisition is an exceedingly complex process and a multicausal phenomenon than can be affected by multifarious factors. We have but discussed some of the effects of bilingualism on third language acquisition, but the multitude of causal factors involved in third language acquisition means that much more can be discussed on this subject.

Analyses of ‘Thank You M’am’ Essay

‘Thank You M’am’ is a short story which is written by Langston Hughes. The story takes place in the USA, in the street and in the woman house, where we meet Mrs Luella and Roger. In this article I am going to analyse this short story. At first I will summarise its plot, then I will discuss the main theme on it, and comment on the main characters and some literary devices. ‘Thank You M’am’ is about a boy called Roger and a large woman Mrs Luella Bates Washington Jones. At eleven o’clock at night, the boy tries to snatch the woman’s pocketbook. But as he grabs the purse behind, the strap brakes, he loses his balance and fall son his back on the sidewalk. Mrs Luella simply turns and kicks him, while he lies down. She shakes roger and commands him to pick up her purse. After having a little talk with him, she decides to take him home to her house by dragging him. She gets him washed and fed. Then he admits that he wants to steal money , so he could by a pair of blue suede shoes. Afterwards they have a conversation about her job. Right before Roger leaves, Mrs Luella gives him ten dollars. Roger wants to say something other than Thank you madam, while he tries to find the right words, she shut the door. The story stretches over a few hours, and it is set in a big city in America, most likely New York according picture’s information on p. 163 and the currency dollars are mention too. I will also say that it is probably in the late 1950s or in the beginning of the 1960s, because this story is from a book which was published in 1963, the suede shoes indicate that it was at that period, since they were very popular then. In my view, the main them of the story is life lessons and mentors. The message is treat others the way you want to be treated. In this story Mrs Luella Bates Washington Jones is a mentor; she wants to teach and provides advice in a kind manner that he can learn from his mistakes. She takes the role as his mother ‘you aught o be my s on. I will teach you right from wrong’. They had something in common, she understands him and she actually admits to a stranger that she also did things when she was young, and she is not proud of ‘I have done things, too, which I would never tell you, son-neither tell God, if he did not already know’. The main characters, as we see, are Roger and Mrs Luella Bates Washington. On the first paragraph we get to know Roger, he is obviously not a very large or a strong man, nor very skilled in the art of stealing purses. This depicts his size and inexperience as a criminal. He lives along as we know, when he replays Mrs Luella that he gets nobody home. A dirty boy dressed in blue jeans and tennis shoes. An honest person he answers â€Å"Yes†, when Mrs Luella asks him if he is going to run, and that he needs money to buy a pair of blue suede shoes. He wants to be trusted, when he sits away from the purse (p. 165 the second paragraph). Mrs Luella Bates Washington Jones, we get closer her in the beginning of the story, especially in the first paragraph, when the author gives a description which makes her seems strong, confident and unafraid of the night, not only a large woman. She lives in a flat with other roomers, but we do not know about her family. She works late in a hotel’s beauty shop. Mrs Luella shows the compassion for the boy, she does not take him to the police, even though he attempts her purse. She is presented as an active and dominant character. The story is told by the third person, a person who observes and describes all things happen in the story. We know just what the protagonists say to each other, no one’s thoughts are declared. The author uses non-standard English in the story to get it more living and more reliable. It is a kind of slang that Americans use especially African American. In my point of view, the climax is in the end of the text, when Mrs Luella Bates gives Roger ten dollars. He simply shocks and gets other thoughts about her. He feels guilty for trying to steal her pocketbook, he apologizes ‘Lady, I am sorry’. She cares and feels sorry about him, although she does not know him. She leads him down the hall and opens the door for him, then she says ’God night, behave yourself, boy.’ In the end, I will simply say that this story is relevant nowadays, because some countries still have this problem. Some people steal to satisfy their needs only. So therefore this story is a good example to these people. It teaches how they can fulfil their wishes without stealing.